NEDM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

NEDM - Essay Example The room – temperature experiment was carried out in Institut Laue-Langevin (ILL) and the final results from this research were published in 2006.3 4 A thorough discussion of the experiment’s apparatus and flow process are included in this review. Ultra-cold neutrons are utilized in the room-temperature experiment; these are generated by the UCN turbine. To begin the process, UCNs ‘entered the apparatus from the lower right (as indicated by the red arrow in Figure 1) and flowed upwards to the polarizer foil’.8 Harris described the UCNs behaviour as similar to ‘a diffuse gas’.9 He further explained, Those of the correct spin passed through the foil and continued to rise until they reached the storage bottle at the heart of the apparatus. The bottle was located in a 10 mG (1 ÃŽ ¼T) vertical magnetic field; four layers of mu-metal were used to shield out external fields, including that of the Earth. After a filling period of about 20 seconds, the neutron door was closed, and the Ramsey sequence was applied to the trapped neutrons. The door was then opened, and the neutrons fell back down to the polarizer, which then acted as an analyser. Those in the original spin state could pass through and down to a gaseous 3He neutron detector (the curved guide tube from the source having been moved aside in favour of a vertical guide leading to the detector). Neutrons of the â€Å"wrong† spin state, which bounced off the polarizer, were counted in their turn by employing a fast-passage adiabatic spin flipper to reverse the direction of the spins of the neutrons in the guide tube just above the polarizer: this spin flipper consisted simply of a solenoid wrapped around the guide tube, situated in a region of magnetic field gradient, to which a high-frequency (20 kHz) alternating current was applied.10 The time needed to process each batch of neutrons takes about

Child Observation And Development

Child Observation And Development Observation skills are one of the most important skills for social workers to have. Social work involves imposing on peoples lives. Developing the ability to manage anxieties this creates, is essential, ensuring the child remains the focus within complex situations (Trowell and Miles 2004). Child development theories provide guidance on age-related changes in behaviours, thoughts, feelings, and social relationships (Bee and Boyd 2010). Social workers need knowledge of child development, to make an informed assessment whether a child is developing within the spectrum of normal or if they are a child in need. The observation model was an adjusted version of the Tavistock Model for studying infants. The original model observes a baby, an hour a week for the first one or two years of life, within the family home (Fawcett 2009). The observer does not take notes, as it allows them to notice all behaviours, movements and expressions of the child. Everything is recorded in detail after the observation. This can lead to forgetting some information within the write up. This model encourages the observer to avoid making judgements about the childs behaviour and development until after the observation and to reflect on each observation (Fawcett 2009 and Quitak 2004). The emphasis on reflection is strength of this model. It allows the observer to understand and separate their emotions and from the childs emotions (Trowell and Miles 2004). This skill is essential for social workers to make informed assessment of the child. Unlike the Tavistock Model, I completed five, one hour observations, in a nursery for three and four year olds. I did not take notes until observations 4 and 5, where I noted Sallys language for accuracy. I completed detailed write ups straight after each observation and then took time to reflect upon my emotions and thoughts and Sallys development. The nursery was part of a primary school, run by the local authority. The building was separate to the rest of the primary school. Its situated in a relatively affluent, middle class area, reflected in lower levels of free school meals compared to the general population. The nursery is open five days a week and the parent decides the days and times their child attends. Children can attend 8.30am to 11.30am, 12.30 to 3.30pm or all day from 8.30 to 3.30pm. Each session has between 15-20 children attending and the nursery has a total of forty children registered. The two teachers have degrees in early years education. They work part-time, one on Monday and Tuesday and the other Wednesday, Thursday and Friday. There is a nursery manager and a nursery assistant working full-time and a volunteer supporting two days a week. The nursery manager supports children within the classroom and appears to have equal status to other staff. The nursery is governed by Ofsted. The last report in October 2009 awarded the nursery a level of good. The report stated the overall effectiveness, outcomes, quality of provision and management of the Early Years Foundation stage was good. The staff make home visits to all children before starting nursery, to introduce themselves to the parent and child. The nursery is well equipped for young children. There is a large outside playing area, with plenty of age appropriate toys, including plastic climbing frames, slides, bikes and drawing areas. There are windows all the way around the nursery making it light and airy, and the walls are covered with educational material and childrens work. String hangs across the nursery where childrens work is attached. One end of classroom is the free play area with bean bags, childrens sofas, books laid out and an interactive white board, which the children can use. The other end is for the children sit together as a class. There is a role-play area, containing a childs kitchen, and a water tub with toys in. There are four tables in the nursery one set up for painting and art, one for writing and the other two with different activities everyday on. There are two computers each with educational games opened on them. When the weather is dry children are encouraged to play outside. All the children wear school uniform, navy jumper/cardigan, black trousers or skirt and a white t-shirt. I observed a Muslim, British-Pakistani girl called Sally. She is aged 3 years and 5 months. She attends the nursery five days a week from 8.30am-3.30pm. She is slightly shorter than the average height, has long black hair, with big brown eyes. Her parents are married and her mum works at a local high school teaching I.T. She has an older sister and two cousins attending the primary school. She has been attending day care since about a year old, but began this nursery in September 2012. I chose this nursery because it was a five minute walk from my house. It took a few weeks to contact the nursery manager because they were attending home visits. After speaking with this nursery manager she recommended Sally because she had normal development, attended the nursery regularly and thought her parents would be happy to give consent. I gave the nursery the information from the UEA and the consent letter for Sallys mother to sign, which was returned, signed to me. I did not speak directly to Sallys parents and was not introduced to Sally or the class. When I arrived at the observation I took a seat and started observing, which felt uncomfortable. In future observations, I would ask to be introduced to the class as someone watching how children grow, so I am not a stranger in the room. Sally was aware I was watching her but was unaware who and why I was doing this, which may be confusing for Sally. In future, I would speak to Sally, on my last observation to explain who I was and why I had been watching her. My observations took place 01/10/2012, 12/10/2012, 9/11/2012, 24/11/2012 and 27/11/2012. Originally I organised my observations for Friday mornings between 9-10am. I planned this, so I could compare Sallys development to limit other factors influencing her behaviour, such as tiredness at the end of the day. My first observation was scheduled for 28/09/2012; however, Sally was off sick. I decided to observe Monday 01/10/2012 between 9-10am, because I was at university the following Friday. I had arranged an observation for 26/10/2012 but this was Eid and Sally was off school and the following week was half term. This created the large gap between the second and third observation. I completed my final observation on a Tuesday afternoon, 2.30-3.30pm, because it allowed me to observe Sally being collected by her aunt. Although the observations did not occur evenly spread, I was able to observe the difference in Sally with the different teachers. Observations one and five were completed with one teacher, two three and four the other. I chose observation three to analyse because provides a general overview of all areas of Sallys development. Observation in full 23/11/2012 Child observation 9.00-10.00am Three teachers and 17 children present When I arrived Sally was sitting in the back of the classroom being read a story by a volunteer helper. She was looking at the book at she was read to and listening to it. This lasted for around 2-3 minutes until the teacher rung the bell. Sally got up and put her fingers in the air and started to move her fingers back and forth (all the class do this to show attention is on the teacher). The teacher announced it was time for the good morning song and all the children needed to be seated on the carpet area. Sally moved over towards the carpeted area. She stopped at the Playdough table and began to make small round shapes with the Playdough and out them into paper cake holders. She was cutting the Playdough with a plastic spatula, to break the Playdough up into smaller sizes to fit in the cake holders. There were other children at the table doing the same thing as Sally was there. The teacher said everyone should be sitting on the carpet; Sally looked up and then looked down again to carry on what she was doing. As she noticed the other children leaving she left. She and another boy were the last two to leave the table. Sally sat down on the carpet and pulled her trousers up to her knees and crossed her legs, putting her hands in her lap. She sat swaying for a short period of time side to side gently bumping into the boy sitting next to her, while he done the same towards her, smiling at each other. The teacher went round and said hello to all the children, Sally replied hello loudly with a wave towards the teacher. Sally looked over at me after she said hello and then quickly looked away. The teacher began singing the good morning song, Sally did not sing along except for a few words. The teacher then said she had got the song wrong and Sally, along with all other children began to laugh. Sallys face was animated with a large smile across her face. She had got up on her knees and was kneeling, rocking back and forth. The song began again and Sally sung along. She said Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday and Saturday too. When she said the too she said this a little bit loud with her facial features becoming more prominent. Her lips pointed out further as she said too. Sally counted one, two, three, four, five, six, and seven as the days of the week were counted. Sally was sat rocking on her knees as she sung to the song. As the song finished a nursery assistant touched Sallys arm to indicate to sit back on the carpet and move backwards a bit. Sally responded to this and sat back down on the carpet with her legs crossed an arms tucked in her lap. Sally pulled up her socks. She pulled them so they were up as far as they could go, she then continued to tug at them, appearing to try make them go higher up her leg. She did this for both legs. She then began to press the bottom of her shoe as this made the lights in the sole flash red. The teacher told the class they would be doing a Christmas play and they would be getting dressed up and singing. The children were asked to stand up in a circle to practice some nursery rhymes. The class sung humpty dumpty. Sally knew all the words to this and sung along. She temporarily held the childs hand next to her. Sally followed actions of the class to fall down when humpty dumpty had a great fall, then got up after the teacher said they didnt need to fall down. Sally put her hands out in front of her with clenched fists and began to pretend to ride a horse, when the rhyme said all the kings horses. Sally was smiling while she was saying the rhyme. The class then sung Hey Diddle Diddle. Sally smiled during this rhyme but did not say too many words. She was looking around at other children, many of the other children did not say as much as the teacher did to this rhyme. The class was asked to sit back down and the teacher would pick the children sitting well to choose activities to play with. Sally sat with her legs crossed and her arms between her legs, so she ended up sitting on her hands, and she was rocking back and forth. Sally was chosen to pick an activity. Sally went over to the Playdough table and along with another 5 children began to make shapes with the Playdough. My view was blocked by the other children and could not see what shapes she was making but saw her interacting with other children. Sally looked at me a few times while she was playing with her Playdough, but showed no expression on her face as she looked at me. I smiled at her and then looked away around the classroom. Sally did not smile back when I smile at her. Sally then moved over towards the back area where the teacher had gone. She sat down in the back corner on the childrens sofa with a book. She looked through the book quickly looking at each page quickly before turning the page. She sat there for a few minutes doing this, another girl came and sat next to her and looked at the book. My view was partly blocked by the children in front of her dancing. Another girl went over and stood in front of her, they exchanged words. I could not hear what was being said because of the children in front of her. Sally moved over to the table and began to look at the nursery rhyme sheets which were lying on the table. She looked at each one and then moved onto the next sheet. The teacher came over and said to Sally do you want me to read one to you? Which one would you like? Sally replied that one and pointed to a blue sheet. The teacher began to read this. The teacher was then distracted by another child and left after reading the rhyme. Sally got up and moved slightly away from the chair she was sitting on. Sally got up and began to dance alongside the teacher to a train song. The song has a video which is shown on the interactive white board. Sally was put her hands out in front of her slightly bent and made them go round in circles, like a trains wheels. The teacher said I like your dancing Sally, have you been practicing? Sally looked up and smiled at the teacher and carried on dancing. She began to become more animated in her moves, moving around the carpet with her arms going up and down. Sally said my foot and the teacher looked down and said sorry Sally, are you ok? Sally continued to dance to the song. The next song was a song about stars and Sally moved her arms out the side and her spread her legs (like a star) and then began jumping up and down. Sally danced for the whole song. She then danced to the football song, and pretended to kick a football with her leg. The teacher said Sally come here and Sally went over towards the teacher. She stood next to her and she explained the order for the children to choose the song on the interactive whiteboard. Joanne would be before Sally. The teacher told another child this and as she said and then Joanne, Sally said and then meà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and then me. Smiling and looking in the direction of the teacher. As the song finished she said out loud your turn! To the child who was next to choose the song. A boy went up to Sally as she was dancing and she showed her a toy butterfly. Sally looked at him and smiled and said thats not mine. She briefly took it off him and looked at it and then handed it back to the boy. The boy walked away and as he did another boy came up to Sally and started to push her. Sallys face went from smiling to frowning. The boy stopped as they both got closer to the bookcase, and sally moved away from him, still frowning. The teacher said are you pushing sally Harry? As Sally saw the teacher approach her bottom lip dropped and started to wobble, Sally walked towards the teacher and looked up towards her. She made a few sounds like she would begin to cry. This quickly stopped as the teacher spoke to the boy, Sally now had her back to me but I could see she was rubbing her face as the teacher spoke to Harry. The boy apologised to Sally after the teacher had asked him to sorry Sally. The teacher moved away to a different area of the classroom, Sally followed her. I could not hear what was said, but appeared to ask the teacher a question and tell her a short story. The teacher knelt down to Sallys height and listened and responded to her. The teacher asked Sally whether she wanted to paint a picture for her mum or to do some writing. Sally said writing Mrs (teachers name). Sally followed the teacher to the writing table. She stood at the table for a few seconds then looked at the drawing table. She walked over to get an apron and stood beside the table. She looked at the girl standing next to her, who had just sat on the chair in front of her and then stood up. She went to sit on the chair, but then got up again. They both stood next to the chair. Sally stood looking at the table and the other children sitting at it, clutching her apron. The teacher said to another child the shape was a diamond, Sally said diamond as she stood there. The teacher replied yes. Sally began to draw a shape in the air with her fingers. She made the shape of a diamond. She moved her arm down and outwards, then down and inwards. She then moved her arm back up. The teacher said yes thats a diamond shape. The teacher said to Sally you have to wait until theres a space for you to do ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.oh there is a space now James has just finished. Sally walked over to the teacher and looked at her. I could see if she asked for her help to put the apron on. The teacher said I want to see if you can put your apron on, can you do it? The teacher then showed Sally how to put her apron on, putting it over her head and arms through the wholes. Sally sat down at the table and picked up different sponge shapes to print them onto the paper. She printed the amount of shapes she wanted on the paper and then put the sponges back; each sponge had different colour paint. She put each sponge in the correct pot it had come from. She said to another girl can I put that back? she was standing up leaning across the table with her arm pushed out, trying to put the sponge back in the correct pot, which the girl was holding. The girl handed the pot to her. After she had finished her painting she took her paper over to the teacher and stood next to her, showing her. The teacher said lets have a look at your painting, thats lovely. Can you name the shapes for me? sally pointed to each shape saying diamond at the diamond shapes, circles at the circles and squares at the squares. Sally got stuck on one diamond shape as she had printed it in a different direction to the others. The teacher said thats a diamond as well; look if we turn the page you can see its a diamond. She tried to walk behind the teachers chair, between a small gap and a set of drawers. The teacher said what do you say..excuse me please. Sally replied excuse me please. The teacher moved her chair and the stack of drawers and Sally walked through the gap. Sally came and sat next to me at the table I was sitting at, where the teacher was also sitting. Sally was kneeling on the chair. The teacher was talking to another child about the hedgehogs they had previously made. Sally lent across the table and said I did one, I did one. She began to feel the clay hedgehogs she had made previously. They had uncooked spaghetti sticking out of the for the hedgehogs spikes. As she touched them she said ow ow. She turned to look at me and said I just touched a hedgehog holding her hand out in front of her, to show me her hand. I replied are you ok She smiled and turned away. She then turned back to me and said whats your name? I smiled and said Lisa. She turned away again. Sally asked the teacher wheres my hedgehog à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ I dont want to touch the spikes She had small whiteboards in front of her to write on. She was using her fingers to clear the pen which had been left on it. A nursery helper came over with some tissue for her to use to wipe it off. She looked over to the girl sitting on the other side of the teacher. The teacher was holding a laminated name card with Sarah written on it. Is that how you spell Sarah? Sally asked the teacher. The teacher said yes its similar to your name sss, s for Sally. Sally asked the teacher wheres my name? The teacher found Sallys name out of the stack of name cards and showed her, her name. Sally was still leaning forward towards the table and had not sat back properly on her seat. Her bum was on the front edge of the chair and she was leaning forward, towards the table. The teacher told her she was worried she would fall off her chair and onto the floor and pulled her seat closer to the table. Sally told the teacher you just, just pushed me! the teacher responded saying she meant to push the chair in. Are you ok? Sally said yes and the teacher said sorry. Sally said she was trying to write all the names of the children in the nursery. She was saying James, John, Ellie, Rob drawing small black circles, about three or four in row, resembling a word. The teacher asked her if she was writing the names of all the children in the class. Sally said she was as. Sally wrote a letter resembling a P and the teacher said if you draw a line down from there (pointing to where the circle of the p meets the line down) you can create an R. R for Rob Sally looked at the teacher and asked her how do you spell my name on the board? The teacher wrote Sally on the white board and said can you copy and write your name? Sally used the black whiteboard to attempt to write her name. Sally was writing small black blobs and circles which appeared to be drawing instead of writing. Sally was concentrated and focused on attempting to write her name. She said rub my name out and no one can see; Sally was rubbing the board with her hand to remove the marker pen. The teacher said to her good thing can start again. Observation ended Analysis of one observation Cognitive development Piaget suggested children have an active part in developing knowledge and understanding (Bee and Boyd 2010). He suggests cognitive development progresses through stages, relating to changes in brain structure and intelligence. The stages are sensori-motor stage (0-2 years), pre-operational stage (2-7years), concrete operational stage (7-12years) and formal operational stage (12+ years) (Smith, Cowie and Blades 2005). Sally is 3.5 years, therefore at the preoperational stage of development. During this stage children develop symbolic thought, the ability to think of one thing but representation it in a different form, enabling language development and imaginative play (Smith, Cowie and Blades 2005). The preoperational child has egocentric thinking, focusing only on their view and believing everyone has the same view. They struggle to understand conservation small changes in appearance do not change the object or its quantity (Bee and Boyd 2006). However, Vygotsky suggested Piaget did not acknowledge the impact the social environment has on cognitive development. Vygotsky believed social interaction is vital for cognitive development, he believed children maximise their potential working with more capable others (Schaffer 2004). Vygotsky described the zone of proximal development (ZPD), the difference between the childs knowledge and, with support, what they are capable of learning. A more capable person offers guidance and support, to the child during the task. Demonstrating how to complete a task and giving feedback on whats right or wrong. The guidance provided a level above the childs current level of understanding, but not above what they are capable of learning, its within their ZPD. This guidance is called scaffolding (Schaffer 2004). These are examples, demonstrate Sallys preoperational stage of cognitive development, this is expected for Sallys age. Sally demonstrates symbolic thought through her use of language and through her actions. Sally sung Humpty Dumpty, clenching her fists and began pretend to ride a horse. Sallys ability to use symbolic thought was shown through her action of pretending to ride a horse her thought was represented in her actions. This was also shown when Sallys dancing to a football song. She pretended to kick a football with her leg. Showing Sallys ability to hold the thought of a pretend ball and express kicking it in actions. Sally had difficulty understanding conservation. After painting she struggled to name a diamond because it was a different position. The teacher said, Thats a diamond as well; look if we turn the page you can see its a diamond. This shows Sally struggling to understand shape remains unchanged even if its position on the paper is different. Scaffolding examples are shown between Sally and the teacher. Sally wrote a letter resembling a P, the teacher said if you draw a line down from there (pointing to where the circle of the p meets the line down) you can create an R. R for Rob. Before this Sally attempted to write the names of children in the class, one called Rob. This was within Sallys ZPD because she had created a P; the teacher recognised this and guided her to write an R, from the P. Sally asked how do you spell my name on the board? The teacher wrote Sally on the white board and asked can you copy and write your name? Sally attempted to copy this. This demonstrates the teacher giving examples and guidance to complete an action. Language development Social Learning Theory (SLT) suggests language is learnt through imitation and reinforcement (Smith, Cowie and Blades 2005). Skinner suggested children imitate adults speech, developing language. Noises resembling words are reinforced, and therefore repeated, overtime developing into words. Children use adults for guidance on what sounds and words to make, correct meaningful words are responded to positively, incorrect words are corrected, until speech becomes adult like (Smith, Cowie and Blades 2005). This is supported by children having higher language abilities when spoken to more often and developing the same language and accent as adults they spend time with (Smith, Cowie and Blades 2005). However language is learnt to quickly for this to fully explain language development (Passer and Smith 2003). Chomsky argues language has an innate, biological basis. The Language Acquisition Device (LAD) allows language to be learnt (Smith, Cowie and Blades 2005). LAD identifies regularities in language, tests new words against these, either accepting or rejecting them (Smith, Cowie and Blades 2005). Children appear to develop language through the same stages, understanding certain grammar before others, making similar errors in production and comprehension at each stage (Whitaker 2010) supporting LAD theory. Sheridan (2008) suggests certain speech patterns are evident at ages three and four. At three children ask lots of wh questions (what, when, why), identify objects by function, count up to ten (learnt by repetition) and listen to stories, wanting favourites repeated. At four children know nursery rhymes, use understandable, grammatically correct speech, begin counting objects and can count up to twenty (Sheridan 2008). SLT is evidenced when Sally needs to walk past the teacher. The teacher said what do you sayà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦excuse me please. Sally replied excuse me please. Sally imitated the teachers words; this was reinforced by the teacher letting Sally past. Shes learnt saying this, means other people move out of her way. As Sheridan (2008) suggested for three years, Sally listened whilst being read to, She was looking at the book as she was read to and listening to it. This lasted for around 2-3 minutes until interrupted. In addition Sally counted one, two, three, four, five, six, and seven. Sally sung nursery rhymes, Humpty Dumpty, and Hey Diddle, Diddle and used complex, grammatically correct sentences; Is that how you spell Sarah? and how do you spell my name on the board? Suggesting Sallys language is slightly above whats expected for her age, showing signs of a four year old level (Sheridan 2008). Teachers at the nursery commented her language is above what they would expect for her age. Sallys language development being slightly above expectations could relate to attending a high quality nursery, since an early age. The National Institute of Child and Human Development (NICHD) Early Child Care Research Network (2000) suggested high quality day care is associated with better cognitive and language development although quantity of time in day care had neither positive nor negative effects on these developmental areas. Language development was measured on parental feedback, not standardized testing. Possibly biasing results, parents may not want to think their child is underachieving so exaggerate ability. Social development and play Piaget suggested childrens play goes through stages. Constructive play is the first to be achieved (before 2 years), pretend play (2-3 years), socio-dramatic play (3-5 years) and rule governed play (by 5 or 6 years) (Bee and Boyd 2006). Sally is at the socio-dramatic stage of play. Two or more children take roles to act in a pretend scenario. Dunn and Cutting (1999) found children who pretend play with friends, maintain friendlier play for longer. This helped children develop Theory of Mind understanding others thoughts and feelings. Socio-dramatic play is evidenced in later observations. Parten (1932) suggested different types of play, solitary independent play (alone), parallel play (alongside each other, little interaction), occurs between 2.5 and 3.5 years, associative play (activities completed with others, without organization or direction) occurs between 3.5 and 4.5 years and cooperative or organised supplementary play (organised activities, aiming towards a goal). Evidence is discussed in the next section. Theres limited evidence of Sally playing in this observation. She displays associative play at the table, playing with Playdough and interacting with five other children. Play is not organised, they are completing similar activities without a specific goal. Howes, Phillips and Whitebook (1992) suggest lower quality care can result in children wandering, not being involved in social activities or play with peers and teachers. This can have a negative impact on childrens social and cognitive development. However higher quality care with developmentally appropriate activities, encourage children to socialise and interact with teachers and peers have more socially competent children. Moral development Kohlberg refined Piagets theory of moral development, suggesting three levels of development, each containing two stages (Kohlberg and Hersh 1977). Preconventional Level is level one, containing stage one The punishment and obedience orientation and stage two The Individualism, instrumental purpose and exchange. Level two is Conventional Level, containing stage three Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships and interpersonal conformity and stage four Social system and conscience. Level three is Postconventional or Principled Level, containing stage five The social-contract orientation and stage six the universal ethical principle orientation (Kohlberg and Hersh 1977). Kohlberg suggested people move up through stages, but few reach the Postconventional level. People understand reasoning one stage above theirs but struggle understanding above this. Being in a social group is important to learn what is morally right and wrong (Kohlberg and Hersh 1977). Therefore children i n day care have the opportunity to learn from others about right and wrong. Children below nine are usually at the Preconventional level, including Sally. Reasoning and judgements are based on what authority says is right or wrong (Bee and Boyd 2010), for Sally this is teachers or parents. Right or wrong is understood as whats punished, children follow rules to avoid punishment. Stage two; rules are followed when in their immediate interest. Good, is what has pleasant results (Bee and Boyd 2010). Kohlberg suggests, despite gender or culture moral development happens this way (Passer and Smith 2003). Although, Sally is British-Pakistani she will progress through these stages. Kohlberg is criticised for having a male bias theory and basing his theory on clinical research using scenarios, not based on real life (Smith, Cowie and Blades 2005). Sally displays moral development resembling stage one. Shes well behaved, following rules during the observation. The class have been told when the bell rings, stop, put their hands up and look at the teacher. When the bell rung Sally go

Internet Censorship Essay examples -- essays research papers fc

Everyone has heard of the Internet and how it is going to help set the world free. The Internet is the fastest growing form of communication and is becoming more and more common in the home. Companies these days do big business over the Internet, and online shopping has grown tremendously in the last few years. For instance, the online auction site eBay sells millions of items every year online. Many companies are making even more plans to expand their business to the Internet. Unfortunately, there have been numerous attempts lately to censor the Internet. If the Internet is controlled, regulated, restricted, or censored it will have harsh effects on its capabilities. In recent years, America’s economy has become increasingly dependent on the need to instantly move large amounts of information across long distances. Computerization has changed everyone’s life in ways that were never before possible. The global network of interconnected computers allows people to send electronic mail messages across the world in the blink of an eye and stay updated on world events as they happen; the world has become a much smaller place as a result of this global communication and exchange of ideas. There have also become thousands of online â€Å"communities† of people who share common interests through message boards, chat rooms, and electronic mailing lists (Wilmott 106). Right now, the Internet is the ultimate demonstration of the first amendment: free speech. A place where people can speak their mind without being punished for what they say or how they choose to say it. â€Å"The Internet owes its incredible worldwide success to its prot ection of free speech, not only in America, but also in countries where freedom of speech is not guaranteed. For some, it is the only place where they can speak their mind without fear of political or religious persecution†. (â€Å"Cyberchaos†). The Internet is also one of America's most valuable types of technology; scientists use email for quick and easy communication. They post their current scientific discoveries on online newsgroups so other scientists in the same field of study all over the world can know in minutes. Ordinary people use the Internet for communication, expressing their opinions in the newsgroups, obtaining new information from the WWW, downloading all types of media files, or just â€Å"surfingâ€Å" for their own personal enjoyment. User... ...aphy is legal. The solution to keeping kids from getting into inappropriate websites is to monitor their access, use filtering software, and teach them morals. Censoring the Internet can only be harmful to everyone else who uses it. Works Cited Cleaver, Cathleen A. â€Å"Cyberchaos: Not First Amendment’s Promise.† http://www-swiss.ai.mit.edu/6805/articles/cda/cleaver-cyberchaos.html â€Å"Current Internet Censorship Efforts.† [Online]. Available www.epic.org/freespeech/censorship. 3 April 2001. Dibbel, Julian. â€Å"Muzzling the Internet.† Time 18 December, 1995: 75. Hentoff, Frances. "Indecent Proposal." Entertainment Weekly 31 March, 1995. â€Å"Legal Definition of Obscenity/Pornography.† [Online]. Available http://censorware.net/essays/obscene_jt.html. 23 March 2001. Levy, Steven. â€Å"U.S. v. the Internet.† Newsweek 31 March 1997: 77-79. Miller, Michael. "Cybersex Shock." PC Magazine 10 Oct. 1995; 75-76. â€Å"Parental Control Ware.† Newsweek 12 February 1996: 12. Rheingold, Howard. â€Å"Rheingold's Tomorrow: Why Censoring Cyberspace is Dangerous & Futile.† [Online.] Available http://www.well.com/user/hlr/tomorrow/tomorrowcensor.html. Tyre, Jim. â€Å"Sex, Lies, and Censorware.†

Learned Helplessness in the Workplace

Running Head: Learned Helplessness in the Workplace Paper Learned Helplessness in the Workplace Psychology 320 November 22, 2010 Professor: Sprinkle Abstract In the late 1960’s and early 1970s Mr. Martin Seligman began to study what effects surroundings have on not only animals, but human beings. His studies were an attempt to determine what ramifications outside influences could have on a live beings motivation and drive for success. He started his studies by giving rats electric shocks.They were inadvertent and without cause, and this was so the rats had no way of reasoning what could cause or prevent the shocks, and how to avoid them. What he found, was that eventually the rats would give up on trying to avoid or escape the shocks. Seligman eventually applied these studies to human infants and what he discovered was a theory he deemed, â€Å"Learned Helplessness. † Learned Helplessness in the Workplace When Martin Seligman chose to study human infants and the effects of outside influences, he wanted to determine whether a lack of control over one’s surroundings could lead to a lack in motivation.What he found was that just like the rats, humans would learn helplessness, and hence the reason his theory is known as the Learned Helplessness Theory. In short, the theory states that with no control over one’s surroundings, the response will be helplessness. He also found that those who learn this will have an interference with the rest of their development. They may have emotional problems along with anxiety and depression as adults. One of the ways that Seligman believed children learned helplessness was if there was no correlation between actions and there outcome.Just like the rats who tried to escape but where still punished with shocks, they felt that no matter what they did the outcome would be the same. Children who had parents with poor parenting skills or who didn’t recognize their successes, learned that no matter what they did, it didn’t change the outcome. Kids who struggled in school may begin to fail repeatedly as they would feel that even if they did try, they would fail. People who have learned helplessness suffer from low self-esteem, and tend to blame themselves for everythingWhile studying learned helplessness in humans, Seligman found that it also can be associated with different ways of thinking about the events that form person's â€Å"explanatory style. † Seligman believed there were three major components of explanatory style associated with learned helplessness. He termed those as permanence, pervasiveness, and personalization. Permanence pertained to the idea that no matter what happens or the events leading up to them, the outcomes were in fact permanent. Pervasiveness referred to the thought that if something negative happened in one situation it would happen in other situations as well.For instance if a person struggles with math, they then assume they are stupid and struggle in every aspect. Personalization, the third and final component of explanatory style, refers to whether one will attribute negative events to their own flaws or to outside circumstances or other people. Most people with Learned Helplessness will attribute everything to their own flaws or shortcomings. Seligman believes in order to help a person overcome Learned Helplessness; they must strive to Learn Optimism.He believes parents and others who celebrate young kid’s mastery of new subjects can lead to optimism as well as their own attitudes toward life. In my own position as a business owner, I believe I have employed a young woman and possibly a few others with who had learned helplessness. There is one young woman in particular who seemed to struggle with the struggles Seligman outlined in his theory. I felt a daily battle in trying to convince her she could change her life and the outcomes of the events in her life if she became motivated.When I bought my healt h club Cassie was the young woman who was the receptionist at the front desk. What I quickly learned was that Cassie had two drug addicted parents who had spent her entire life beating each other up, a father who was in and out of jail who tried to use her to get drugs, and a mother who tried to get her to do drugs with her. I quickly recognized in Cassie the ability to be different than her upbringing, but I couldn’t see a desire from her to get there. She had an inner voice that told her she never could be successful, as mediocrity was all she felt she deserved.I rewarded her for her work in attempt to motivate her, but it seemed no matter what promotion or reward I offered I couldn’t get her motivated to make changes in her life. She would come to work on time, and do what was asked of her, but I never saw any motivation to rise above and excel to the next level, even though I could see she was naturally intelligent and capable of many things. I felt for Cassie as I am not sure she ever had a chance given her parents, but I couldn’t change her as I so wished I could.No amount of positive praise or reward could convince Cassie that she could change her life, even though her intelligence was high and her ability was great. She just didn’t believe it was possible. I tried for four years to be a role model for Cassie, and there were many days when I thought she was making the choices to change her life, but she never followed through as she really believed change for her was impossible. Cassie had tried for her entire youth rise above both her parents, but eventually she felt no matter what she did the end was inevitable.It’s as if she predetermined her future by thinking it was going to be the worst future possible. In the end it seems she figured if she couldn’t beat her parents, she should join them. I tried very hard to be a positive impact for Cassie and help change her life, but the damage that she had incurred se emed to be too great. No matter what I did, she couldn’t become an optimist or change the way she felt about the outside influences in her life. No matter how hard I encouraged or pushed her in a positive direction, she always wound up back on the bottom because she truly believed that is where she belonged.I often think about her and wonder if there is anything else I could have done to help her crawl out of her life and into one she was worthy up, but in the end I think that she couldn’t change her way of thinking and truly believed the type of life she had was meant to be permanent. She is living somewhere now in a rundown apartment off of welfare with her young daughter who I believe will turn out exactly like her. She has no job because she doesn’t want to lose her food stamps and welfare, and she is back on drugs.My only hope in life is that somebody will be able to walk into her life and tell her daughter that she is smart, and capable of so much in life. I have learned from Cassie the value of celebrating a child’s little successes, and encouraging them to be something in life. It’s sad, but Cassie’s case of Learned Helplessness has taught me about promoting optimism, and I plan on spreading it to any children I come in contact with. References: Learned Helplessness (2001) Encyclopedia of Childhood and Adolescence. Retrieved at: http://findarticles. com/p/articles/mi_g2602/is_0003/ai_2602000349/Theory Name| Major Theorist(s)| Time Period Created| Key Theory Concepts| First Grand Theory: WILL| Socrates, Plato and Descartes| Ancient Greeks and 17th-18th centuries| Socrates and Plato literally broke down the concept into mind and body. Mind over matter. According to Plato there was a way to keep body in check. This could be accomplished by the will. In other words the will was in control of all aspects of intention both bodily needs and that which would be considered spiritual. Descartes was convinced that motivat ion was the will. He believed that the will was in charge of whether to act or not to act.Bodily needs pleasures, pain, impulses were just means to an end. Will had the ultimate say. He and other philosophers at the time were convinced that they had the answer. In the end the will turned out to be something of a mystery. In dealing with just the will to explain motivation, it just proved to be a purpose and it was not universal in its theory because some people had more willpower than others. | Second Grand Theory: Instinct| DarwinWilliam JamesMcDougall| 19th-20th Century| Darwin’s thoughts were dealing with the biology of mankind.His theory is still being dealt with today. Religions and scientists still trying to prove or disprove his theory. His main distinction was between animals and humans. Darwin took away the idea of will when he was able to show that animals were able to use their resources (motivation) to adapt to like humans. So in this sense the will was no longer an explanation of motivated behavior. James’ theory consisted of introducing stimulus into the picture. Reflex and instincts is what makes human motivation. McDougall took the research on a generation after Darwin.Once researchers embraced this idea the next thing to do was to identify the instincts. This became a daunting task. On top of that the instinct theory was exposed as circular. In other words, instinct theory failed because theorists were unable to determine if instincts really exist. | Third Grand Theory: Drive| Sigmund Freud Robert Woodworth Clark Hull | 20th Century| Freud, all behaviors were satisfying needs. Behavior serves bodily needs and drive acted as a guard or middleman to ensure that behaviors occurred when needed for comfort of the body. Satisfaction of the bodily need quieted drive.Freud’s theory was crushed due to three factors (1) overestimation of biological forces (2) overreliance on data taken from case studies of mentally ill individuals a nd (3) ideas that were not scientifically testable. Hull’s drive theory did had one thing the other will and instinct did not have and that was prediction. Drive came from environmental conditioning which marked the beginning of scientific study of motivation. If the answer to the environmental question could be answered as to the motivation created then, one would be able to manipulate or predict motivational states in the laboratory.Eventually though drive met its fate too. It was clear that drive reduction was neither necessary nor sufficient for learning to occur. Robert Woodworth: responsible for the so called â€Å"dynamic: interactional metaphor of nature vs. nurture. He saw the essential task of psychological investigation as ‘the give and take’ between the organism’s mentality and the requirements of its physical and social existence. According to the scientific world of the 21st century these thoughts are holding the discipline back. |Goal Setti ng| Locke| Late 1960s| Mini-theories represented attempts by researchers and theorists to focus on more and more specific aspects of behavior rather than to account for ALL motivating factors by relying on one single theory. As a result of this emphasis, mini-theories were developed to help explain some but not all of motivated behavior. For example, mini-theories might attempt to explain why a student is performing poorly in elementary school or why Mini-theories became popular because they focused largely on cognitive approaches to understanding behavior.They represented a reaction to the idea that humans are inherently passive. They also reflected a growing need for psychology to provide answers to questions that had important social implications or solved problems that were socially relevant. Edwin Locke’s Goal Setting Theory states that people who set goals for themselves will become motivated to achieve those goals, solely as a result of making those goals. Furthermore, those who set specific goals that are more difficult are able to achieve a higher level of performance than those who set easier and abstract goals.The Goal Setting Theory outlines five important principles of goal setting that motivates individuals and they are: clarity(measurable and unambiguous goals with a specific completion time ensure that there is no misunderstanding about what is required to reach the goal), challenge (difficult goals are often more motivating than easier goals), commitment (when there is a strong commitment to the goal, there is a higher level of motivation), feedback (it is important to provide opportunities for clarifying and reassuring), and task complexity (allowing time for people to achieve the goal or learn what is needed to achieve the goal).One important aspect of the goals is that they must be specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time bound (SMART). In 1975 the theory was scientifically proven by researchers Latham and Baldes. Common criticisms of this theory are that it is a technique rather than a theory, it can produce undesirable competition, and it emphasizes some aspects over others (quantity over quality). | Cognitive Dissonance Achievement Motivation Learned HelplessnessOthers? | FestingerAtkinsonSeligman| 1950s19641975| The Cognitive Dissonance Theory is based off of the idea of cognitive dissonance.Cognitive dissonance is the uncomfortable feeling that arises from having two conflicting thoughts at the same time. Dissonance is referred to as the uncomfortable feeling and can often be projected as feelings of guilt, embarrassment or immorality. Dissonance can also be greater in some cases such as with big decisions or decisions that will have a great impact, decisions that are particularly difficult to solve (such as with two similar decisions), and decisions that are concerned with oneself.This theory states that when a person has these conflicting thoughts, then they will be motivated to resolve the conflict as humans tend to seek consistency within their thoughts. Often there are three ways that a person will resolve the conflict. They may change their behavior, justify their behavior by changing the conflicting beliefs to reduce dissonance (such as by reducing the importance), or justify the behavior by adding more beliefs that will reduce dissonance (such as focusing on strengths).It is important to note that one will be more likely to change their attitude or beliefs as there would be less dissonance involved, rather than changing one’s behavior. Atkinson’s theory states orientation is the result of two separate motives: the motive of achieving success and the motive to avoid failure. A persons motivation to achieve success depends on three factors: the need to succeed, the persons estimate of the ability to success and likelihood of succeeding, and the incentive for success.The motive to avoid failure shares the same three conditions, but in relation to avoid ing failure. This theory has been criticized due to the fact that a persons needs must be known before behavior can be affected. The Learned Helplessness theory speculated after testing on dogs, that humans too learn to be helpless when placed in a situation in which their actions seem to not have an effect, leading to depression. It has been criticized for not distinguishing between universal and personal helplessness. |

A Crucible analysis in terms of language and structure Essay

In times of moral and social chaos between any civilised or uncivilised society, when the threat of any opposing force or alliance turns citizens and parliament alike into accusative fools; when ‘the voice’ itself is riddled with paranoia and irrational thinking, (most likely by the simple arrival of something unknown or new,) other elements of society come forth to offer through their art, an alternative point of view whether it be subtle or public;  Arthur Miller a leading American playwright of several decades with such acclaimed works as Death of a Salesman and The Man Who Had All the Luck to his name. Although Miller’s dramas took a familial setting, he earned a reputation for dealing with the contemporary political and moral issues of the time. One dramatic device used in a piece studied by myself and piers was an allegory: the use of characters or events to represent ideas or principals in a play, story or picture. At the height of the McCarthy era, when indeed social order and security were replaced by paranoia and an element of superstition, Miller’s allegoric play The Crucible conveyed the insanities and fears of the future by showing on stage a similar occurrence in the past. By playing to the audiences of 1950’s America, Miller brought to light the resolution of 1700’s Salem, how they coincide, and how if the â€Å"witch hunt† in the present day continued one of the biggest public  blunders of the past which would repeat itself. I use the term â€Å"witch hunt† because of the nature of accusations and their ability to root out the weeds of society fifty years ago- the communists.Senator Joe McCarthy takes his place in history as the main figure leading the anti-communist movement. As the threat of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) loomed over the west, and the iron curtain acted not only as a barrier of communications between the two parts, but as point of alienation; east meets west, communists meet democrats, any crossover between the two met its climax at panic, hence the trials in the United States to which Miller was no stranger to. The playwright was brought to trial to assist the court in finding those who were witnessed to meeting and socialising with him; they were deemed communist. In various quotes and accounts given from Miller himself, we can see how his personal involvement in the communist raids appear in the play in the thoughts and feelings of the characters and the overall message that can interpreted from The Crucible: I believe this to be the ethos of boundaries and limits of human beings- how far we can push ourselves before we find the things we would die to hold onto. Are we Abigail with limitless lack of morals persevered by the incomprehensible consideration for self, with her only boundary being her obsession with passion, embodied in a Mr John Proctor? Or are we those minor characters, who Miller had seen in court? â€Å"I saw accepted the notion that conscience was no longer a private matter but now one of state administration. I saw men handing conscience to other men and thanking them for the opportunity of doing so.† ‘Minor’ that is in the sense of having one thing in common; a common boundary which was non-existent it seems when it came to handing over names of â€Å"guilty† friends. If we are not, we are then John Proctors: those who would die for sanctity and purity of one’s name. Miller’s personal input into The Crucible is one that manifests itself in the character of John Proctor: this character is based on the playwright’s boundaries and pride. The strength of Proctor comes from Miller’s beliefs which are mirrored in a quote taken from court- â€Å"I am not protecting the Communists or the Communist Party. I am trying to protect my sense of self. I have taken responsibility for everything I have ever done, but I cannot take responsibility for another human being.† However, I believe that what Such was Miller’s astonishment that history was to be repeated when the world had learnt and moved on from the ‘evil displayed by the judges of these trials and the prosecutors of the Salem witch trials,’ that he took it upon himself to dig up and publicise the past as the events had so much to teach- â€Å"It was as though the whole country had been born anew, without a memory even of certain elemental decencies which a year or two earlier no-one would have imagined could have been altered, let alone forgotten. Astounded, I watched men pass me by without a nod whom I had known rather well for years; I knew that the terror in these people was being knowingly planned and consciously engineered , and all they knew was terror.† This quote also tells us of Miller’s suspicion of the US government: that a fear with no real public threat (communism) had such a massive affect on the general population. I believe he thought that the will of the democratic government increased the hype of communism to keep America what is was and still is, a democracy- no matter how many chapters of history may come back to haunt them.